Following my article about Chinese Jews, I hope this one about Christianity in China will be of interest to some.
Christianity has had a long, complex, and often tumultuous history in China. Introduced by Nestorian missionaries in the 7th century, the flourishing underground churches of today testify that the faith has persisted and adapted in the face of imperial skepticism, foreign intrusion, political suppression, and cultural ambivalence.
Christianity is now the fastest-growing religion in China. Scholars, theologians, and the political analysts of the CCP are grappling with the question why. I admit to knowing little about Christianity itself – my husband tells people, wrongly, that I think Jesus and Santa Claus are the same, or relatives - but here I trace its historical trajectory in China and look into the social, political, and, more difficulty, the spiritual forces driving its expansion.
Christianity first reached China during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD) through the efforts of Nestorian missionaries from the Church of the East. The most prominent record of this is the Nestorian Stele, erected in 781 AD, which documents the presence of Christian communities in China. The Tang emperors, known for their cosmopolitan openness, permitted the practice of various religions, including Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Nestorian Christianity.
But this did not endure. By the end of the Tang Dynasty, political instability and religious purges pushed Nestorian Christianity to the margins. It briefly reappeared under the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), when the Mongol rulers welcomed a diversity of religions, including Latin Catholicism introduced by Franciscan missionaries like John of Montecorvino. But Christianity disappeared once again with the fall of the Yuan Dynasty and the reassertion of Han Chinese Ming
Christianity returned in the late 16th century through the efforts of Jesuit missionaries, most notably Matteo Ricci, who arrived in 1582. Ricci adopted a unique strategy of cultural accommodation, learning Chinese, dressing like a Confucian scholar, and translating Christian texts into Chinese. He and his fellow Jesuits attempted to harmonise Christian theology with Confucian ethics, portraying Christianity not as a foreign religion but as a moral and philosophical complement to Chinese traditions.
This strategy won some elite converts and court favour, but the Chinese Rites Controversy in the 17th and 18th centuries, centred around whether traditional Confucian rituals were compatible with Christian beliefs, led to friction with the Vatican. Eventually, the Qing Dynasty banned Christianity in the early 18th century, viewing it as a subversive foreign influence.
The 19th century marked a turning point. Following the Opium Wars (1839–42, 1856–60), Western powers forced China to sign unequal treaties that, among other things, allowed Christian missionaries to operate freely. This association between Christianity and Western imperialism made it deeply suspect to many Chinese. Missionaries often operated under the protection of colonial powers, and Christian converts sometimes received legal and economic privileges, leading to social resentment.
This tension exploded during the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901), when anti-foreign, anti-Christian rebels killed thousands of Chinese Christians and missionaries. Nevertheless, missionary activity continued, and by the early 20th century, China had a small but significant Christian population, alongside mission-run schools, hospitals, and universities. My own mother was educated by Catholic nuns in the 1920s and early 30s.
After the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, Christianity gained more converts during the Republican era. Prominent Chinese intellectuals and political figures such as Sun Yat-sen were either Christian or influenced by Christian ideals. Protestant churches, in particular, expanded during this period.
The founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 marked another dramatic shift. The Communist government under Mao Zedong viewed religion as a form of feudal superstition and Western influence. Churches were closed or brought under state control. The Three-Self Patriotic Movement was established to sever ties between Chinese churches and foreign missionaries. It promoted the principles of self-governance, self-support, and self-propagation, and is controlled by the CCP.
During the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), all forms of religious practice were banned. Churches were destroyed, clergy were persecuted, and Christianity was forced underground. My mother had already changed her date of birth (making herself younger) and birthplace to avoid suspicion even though she had joined the CCP before the party took power.
However, this suppression had unintended consequences. The faith, stripped of foreign associations and institutional structures, became indigenised and deeply embedded in many local communities.
After Mao's death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping’s reforms opened China to limited religious freedom. The government reauthorized the TSPM and allowed registered churches to operate under state supervision. However, this also led to a massive proliferation of “house churches”—unregistered, independent Christian communities that often met in private homes, factories, or rural meeting halls.
The house church movement became the primary engine of Christianity’s growth in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. These churches operated outside state control, fostering vibrant communities with strong spiritual and emotional bonds. Despite frequent harassment, detentions, and even demolitions of church buildings, the movement has persisted and grown.
Today, estimates of the number of Christians in China vary widely due to the clandestine nature of many communities. According to some estimates there were approximately 67 million Christians in China as of 2010, including both Protestants and Catholics. More recent estimates suggest there were more than 100 million by 2020. Some scholars, such as sociologist Fenggang Yang, project that China could become the largest Christian country in the world by 2030.
Here I am forced to guess, but my own investigation and research suggests that, post-Mao, China experienced a profound moral and spiritual vacuum. The Cultural Revolution's destruction of traditional values, combined with rapid modernisation and materialism, left many Chinese people searching for deeper meaning. Christianity, with its strong moral framework and emphasis on love, hope, and community, appears to have filled this void for many.
Also, as millions of Chinese migrated from rural areas to booming cities, they faced alienation, instability, and identity crisis. Churches, especially house churches, offered migrants a sense of community, belonging, and social support. For many, becoming Christian was both a spiritual choice and a means of navigating the chaos of urban life.
(As perhaps Islam does in Britain today?)
Contrary to stereotypes, many Chinese Christians are highly educated professionals, including academics, lawyers, and businesspeople. Christianity’s ethical teachings, human dignity concepts and compatibility with Confucian values have appealed to Chinese intellectuals. In fact, Christian thought has increasingly found a place in Chinese universities and academic debates.
Chinese house churches have shown remarkable evangelical energy, often emphasise personal conversion, active preaching, and rapid church planting. With little reliance on foreign missionaries, a new generation of indigenous Christian leaders has emerged, tailoring the faith to Chinese culture while maintaining theological orthodoxy.
Despite government censorship, the internet has played a significant role in spreading the Christian message. Sermons, Bible studies, and theological discussions circulate on social media and encrypted platforms, allowing underground churches to connect and grow. Even as authorities crack down on religious content, believers continue to find creative ways to share their faith.
Ironically, state repression has sometimes fuelled growth rather than deterred it. Persecution often strengthens group identity and spiritual commitment. The suffering of Chinese Christians, from surveillance to imprisonment, has become a powerful testimony that inspires both
The Chinese government remains wary of Christianity, particularly unregistered house churches. Authorities often cite concerns about foreign influence, social stability, and political loyalty. In recent years, under Xi Jinping, the state has intensified its efforts to “Sinicize” religion—requiring religious groups to align with socialist values and Chinese culture.
Crosses have been removed from church buildings. Children under 18 have been barred from attending services, and priests have been arrested for holding unauthorised meetings. Nonetheless, this tightening has not reversed Christianity’s momentum. Many believers remain steadfast, and some churches have even opted for civil disobedience rather than compromise their faith.
The future of Christianity in China is uncertain but promising. On one hand, state control and persecution could escalate, especially as the government pushes forward with authoritarian policies and digital surveillance. On the other hand, the resilience of Chinese Christians, the vitality of the house church movement, and the spiritual hunger of the population suggest that Christianity will continue to grow.
Some theologians believe China could become a launching pad for global missions, particularly to other parts of Asia and, unlike European Christians, the Muslim world, a vision sometimes referred to as the “Back to Jerusalem” movement. Others see the Chinese church as a model of faithfulness under pressure, capable of enriching global Christianity with its unique experiences and perspectives.
So, from its obscure beginnings in the Tang Dynasty to its status as a rapidly growing faith in the 21st century, Christianity in China has demonstrated remarkable adaptability and resilience. While political suppression and cultural resistance have shaped its trajectory, they have not stifled its growth. On the contrary, adversity has often strengthened the church's resolve and deepened the faith of its adherents. As China continues to navigate the tensions between tradition, modernity, and spiritual searching, Christianity stands poised to play an increasingly influential role in the nation’s religious, cultural, and social landscape.
Zhang Yingyue